Chapter 11: Bilingual Language Processing

Key Focus: Language Representation, Control, Executive Function, & L2 Learning

Overview

This chapter examines how bilingual individuals process, store, and control their two languages, exploring the cognitive mechanisms that enable fluent language switching while preventing interference. We investigate competing models of bilingual language representation, the evidence for simultaneous language activation, and the relationship between bilingualism and executive control. The chapter also addresses second language learning challenges and the neural basis of bilingual language processing.

Learning Goals

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Compare competing models of bilingual language representation (Word Association, Concept Mediation, Revised Hierarchical Model)
• Evaluate evidence for simultaneous activation of both languages during comprehension and production
• Analyze how bilinguals manage language control and avoid interference using different cognitive mechanisms
• Explain the bilingual advantage hypothesis and critically evaluate the evidence for and against it
• Understand the challenges of second language learning and factors that influence success
• Describe the neural basis of bilingual language processing and how it differs from monolingual processing
• Apply bilingual processing principles to explain real-world phenomena like code-switching and language mixing
• Compare effective versus ineffective second language teaching methods based on cognitive principles

1. Introduction (pp. 421-422)

1.1 What Is a Bilingual?

Not just “knows two languages”—must use both daily (e.g., Spanish at home, English at work).

• Global Norm: ~90% of Dutch speakers are bilingual (Dutch + English/German/French); U.S. is unusual in monolingual norms.

1.2 Myth Busting: “Two Monolinguals in One Body”

• ❌ Myth: Separate mental compartments for each language.
• ✅ Reality: Shared resources (same memory, speech, and lexical access systems for both languages).

1.3 Key Challenges

• Lexical Competition: Two labels per concept (e.g., cat / gato)—both activate, causing delays.
• Slower Responses: Bilinguals name pictures 50–100 ms slower, recognize nonwords 150 ms slower (not “worse” skills—just resolving competition).

2. How Languages Connect: Potter’s Models & the RHM (pp. 422-425)

2.1 Core Puzzle

Bilinguals have 2 phonological forms (sound labels: cat / gato) but 1 concept (mental “cat” representation). How do they link?

2.2 Competing Models

2.3 Potter et al.’s (1984) Definitive Study

• Participants: Proficient Chinese-English bilinguals + novice English-French students.
• Tasks: (1) Translate L1→L2; (2) Name pictures in L2.
• Result: Both groups took identical time for both tasks—disproves WAM, supports CM (meaning is mandatory, even for novices).

2.4 Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM): Fixing CM

Explains why L2→L1 translation is faster than L1→L2:

• Asymmetric Links: L2→L1 direct link is strong (fast, no concept); L1→L2 link is weak (needs concept, slow).
• Evidence:
  • L1→L2 translation shows semantic interference (e.g., apple/banana slow translation—concept competition).
  • L2→L1 translation has no interference (no concept activation).

3. Both Languages Are Active Simultaneously (pp. 425-435)

3.1 The Bilingual Paradox

Fluent bilinguals rarely mix languages—but lab data shows both languages activate at once (competition is hidden, not absent).

3.2 Evidence: Comprehension

A. Cognate Advantage

Cognates = shared form/meaning (e.g., piano English/Spanish, film English/French).

• Finding: Processed 100–150 ms faster than non-cognates—both languages’ labels activate, boosting speed.
• ERP Proof: Smaller N400 (less semantic confusion) for cognates.

B. Interlingual Homographs (“False Friends”)

Look/sound alike, different meanings (e.g., gift = “present” English, “poison” German).

• Finding: Processed 200–250 ms slower—nontarget meaning activates, causing competition.

C. Cross-Language Phonological Activation

• Study (Marian et al., 2003): Russian-English bilinguals heard marker (English) → looked at “stamp” (Russian marka = similar sound) 30% more—phonology spills over to L1.

3.3 Evidence: Production

A. Picture-Word Interference

• Semantic Distractors: Hear dog (English) while naming cat in Spanish (gato) → 100 ms slower (concept competition).
• Phonological Distractors: Hear gatito (Spanish “kitten”) while naming cat → 50 ms faster (shared sound boosts activation).
• Cross-Language Effect: Hear cat (English) → same speed boost as gatito—L1 activates during L2 production.

B. Language Switch Costs

Switching between L1/L2 (e.g., count 1–10 English → Spanish → English) causes slowdowns:

• Asymmetric Costs: L2→L1 switch is 150 ms slower—speaking L2 requires suppressing L1; switching back needs “releasing” suppression.

3.4 Reducing Competition

• High Proficiency: Fluent bilinguals (Catalan-Spanish) restrict activation to target language—no competition.
• Language Similarity: Similar languages (Catalan/Spanish, 75% cognates) cause facilitation (not competition) via shared concepts.

4. Models of Language Control (pp. 435-440)

4.1 The Control Problem

How do bilinguals avoid errors (e.g., saying gato in English)?

4.2 Key Models

4.3 Zooming-In Hypothesis

Context modulates activation:

• Constraining Context: I deposited money at the bank → “zooms in” on English bank (suppresses Spanish banco).
• Weak Context: I saw a bank → both languages activate, causing competition.

5. Bilingualism & Executive Control (pp. 440-443)

5.1 Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis

Bilingualism boosts executive control (focus, inhibition, conflict resolution)—“cognitive exercise” from daily L1 suppression.

5.2 Evidence for the Advantage

• Simon Task: Bilinguals 80–100 ms faster on incongruent trials (e.g., green stimulus on right, left key = correct)—better ignore distractions.
• Aging: Bilinguals 70–79 have same executive control as monolinguals 50–59—slows age-related decline.

5.3 Critiques

• Meta-Analyses: No consistent effect after accounting for publication bias (Lehtonen et al., 2018).
• Bimodal Bilinguals: English-ASL speakers (no speech suppression needed) show no advantage—advantage tied to unimodal (speech-only) bilingualism.
• Task Dependence: Only appears in simple tasks (Simon Task), not complex ones (Stroop Task).

6. L2 Learning: Challenges & Techniques (pp. 443-444)

6.1 Why Adults Struggle

• Critical Period: Children learn implicitly (procedural memory); adults rely on declarative memory (slower, less automatic).
• L1 Entrenchment: L1 rules (e.g., English SVO) are fixed—hard to adapt to L2 (e.g., Japanese SOV).

6.2 Effective Teaching Techniques

• Minimize L1 Activation: Use unique visuals (e.g., cat from below) + L2-only activities (role-play) to build direct L2→concept links.
• Immersion/Study Abroad: Canada’s French immersion schools → near-native fluency; study abroad boosts production (fewer pauses) more than classroom learning.

6.3 Individual Differences

• Phonological Memory: Better memory for sound sequences (e.g., ¿Dónde está el baño?) → 20% more L2 fluency (O’Brien et al., 2007).
• Working Memory: High capacity benefits more from study abroad; low capacity benefits from structured classrooms.

7. Neural Bases of Bilingualism (pp. 445-446)

7.1 Early Neural Changes

• ERP Studies: Beginners show brain differences (smaller N400 for real L2 words, larger P600 for L2 grammar errors) before behavioral improvements—brain learns first.

7.2 Shared Core Regions

L1 and L2 activate the same language areas:

• Broca’s Area (production), Wernicke’s Area (comprehension), middle temporal gyrus (semantics)—even for late bilinguals.

7.3 Subtle Differences

• Complex Syntax: L2 passives activate left middle temporal gyrus more (extra effort).
• Switching: Activates anterior cingulate (conflict) and prefrontal cortex (executive control).

7.4 Key Takeaway

Differences reflect task difficulty, not separate regions. Match L1/L2 task difficulty → nearly identical brain activation.

Quick Review Questions

1. What is the RHM, and why does L2→L1 translation happen faster than L1→L2?
2. What is a cognate, and why are they processed faster than non-cognates?
3. How does the Inhibitory Control Model explain language switch costs?
4. What is the bilingual advantage, and why is it debated?
5. Why do adults struggle more with L2 learning than children?